Concrete Manual

Published by: ICBO ISBN: 1-58001-139-X 340 Pages, 8-1/2 x 11, Shipping Weight: 1.75 lbs.

Filled with illustrations, diagrams, and photographs, this essential Code resource covers every aspect of concrete from the Code’s point of view.

Shows how to pour, how to affect strength, how to affect durability, how to avoid cracks and blemishes, types of aggregates, types of sealants, formwork requirements, proportioning the concrete mixture, how to test and control concrete, slabs on ground, finish and curing, precast and prestressed concrete, steel reinforcing, and special concrete techniques.

Includes a FREE CD-ROM for searching text and copying images. Published by ICBO. Updated to the 2003 IBC.

Contents

Chapter

1. Fundamentals of Concrete, 1

2. The Fresh Concrete, 9

3. The Strength of Concrete, 17

4. The Durability of Concrete, 29

5. Volume Changes and Other Properties, 43

6. Cracks and Blemishes, 55

7. Portland Cement, 75

8. Aggregates, 87

9. Water and Admixtures, 105

10. Accessory Materials, 117

11. Formwork, 121

12. Proportioning the Concrete Mixture, 131

13. Testing and Controlling the Concrete, 145

14. Batching and Mixing the Concrete, 165

15. Handling and Placing the Concrete, 181

16. Slabs on Ground, 197

17. Finishing and Curing the Concrete, 209

18. The Steel Reinforcement, 223

19. Hot and Cold Weather Concreting, 249

20. Precast and Prestressed Concrete , 257

21. Lightweight and Heavyweight Concrete, 275

22. Special Concreting Techniques, 283

23. Waterproofing and Damproofing, 301

24. Introduction to Inspection, 307

25. Inspection of Concrete Construction, 315

26. Quality Control, 325

References, 333

Resource References, 335

Index, 337

Chapter One
Fundamentals of Concrete

1.1. History of Cement and Concrete

Early History. Shelter, from the very beginning of man's existence, has demanded the application of the best available technology of the contemporary era. In the earliest ages, structures consisted of rammed earth, or stone blocks laid one on another without benefit of any bonding or cementing medium. Stability of the stone structures depended on the regular setting of the heavy stones. The earliest masonry probably consisted of sun-dried clay bricks, set in regular courses in thin layers of moist mud. When the moist mud dried, a solid clay wall resulted. Construction of this kind was common in the dry desert areas of the world.

Burnt gypsum as a cementing material was developed early in the Egyptian period and was apparently used in construction of some of the pyramids. Later the Greeks and Romans discovered methods of burning limestone to produce quicklime, which was subsequently slaked for use in making mortar. Both the Greeks and the Romans learned that certain fine soil or earth, when mixed with the lime and sand, produced a superior cementing material. 'Me Greek material, a volcanic tuff from the island of Santorin, is still used in that part of the world. The best of the materials used by the Romans was a tuff or ash from the vicinity of Pozzuoli near Mt. Vesuvius, hence the name "pozzolan" used to identify a certain type of mineral admixture used in concrete today.

The cement produced by the Romans was a hydraulic cement; that is, it had the capability of hardening under water. Many of the Roman structures were constructed of a form of concrete, using these materials, and stone masonry was bonded with a mortar similarly composed. The Basilica of Constantine, an early example of the use of stone and broken brick or tile as an aggregate in concrete, and the Coloseum are two examples of Ro- man architecture of this period.

During the Middle Ages of history, the art of making good mortar was nearly lost, the low point having been reached in about the 11th century, when much inferior material was used. Quality of the lime started to improve at this time and in the 14th century or later the use of pozzolans was again practiced.

One of the most famous projects in more recent times was the construction of the new Eddystone Lighthouse off the coast of England in 1757-1759. John Smeaton, the engineer and designer of the structure, investigated many materials and methods of bonding the stones for the building. According to Samuel Smiles,

The blue lias referred to is an argillaccous, or clay, limestone, and the terra puzzolano was a pozzolan that had apparently been imported on a speculative basis from Italy.

Engineering and scientific development was beginning to move rapidly at this time, and many researchers in several countries were investigating cementing agents made from gypsum, limestone and other natural materials. Lesage and Vicat in France, Frost and Parker in England, were among these pioneer experimenters. One discovery was a method of making a cement by burning a naturally occurring mixture of lime and clay. Properties of the natural cement were very erratic because of variations in the proportions in the natural material, although use of this natural cement continued for many years.

In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a brickrnason of Leeds, England, took out a patent on a material he called portland cement, so called because concrete made with it was supposed to resemble the lime- stone quarried near Portland, England. Aspdin is generally credited with inventing a method of proportioning limestone and clay, burning the mixture at high temperature to produce clinkers, then grinding the clinkers to produce a hydraulic cement. His small kiln, producing about 16 tons of clinker at a time, required several days for each bum. Expansion and development of cement manufacturing was slow for a number of years. About 1850, however, the industry had become well established not only in England but also in Germany and Belgium.

Shipments to the United States were started in 1868 and reached a peak about 1895, at which time production was well under way in the United States.

Meanwhile the United States production of natural cement had been started early in the 19th century as a result of the demand for cement for construction of the Erie Canal and related works. The first portland cement made in the United States was produced by David Saylor at Coplay, Pennsylvania, in 1871. Subsequent development of the rotary kiln led to largescale production of cement throughout the world.

The use of concrete was expanded by the construction of railroads, bridges, buildings and street pavements. Research in reinforcing concrete with steel rods had been started in France, and the year 1875 saw the first use of reinforced concrete in the United States. Much of the concrete at this time contained barely enough water to enable the concrete to be rammed into place by the application of much hand labor. There then ensued a period of wet concrete in which the concrete was flowed into place. Many users of concrete, however, realized the folly of wet mixes, and in 1918 Duff Abrams revealed the results of his research and observations. He stated that the quality of concrete was directly affected by the amount of water in relation to the amount of cement; within reasonable limits, the quality of the, concrete decreases as the water-cement ratio goes up. This has become one of the basic laws of concrete technology.

The first third of the 20th century saw great expansion and improvement in the use of concrete besides the disclosure of the water-cement law. Test and control methods were being developed. Even before 1912 the pioneers in precasting were active, and the ready-mix industry was well established by 1925. The introduction of high-frequency vibrators in 1928 permitted the use of relatively dry, harsh mixes. Investigation of materials for Hoover Dam in 1930 resulted in the development of low-heat cement for mass concrete. Further cement research gave the industry five standard portland cements. Research in admixtures was conducted by many researchers during the 1930s, revealing the advantages of air-entrainment, which came to be specified by many agencies during the 1940s. Pozzolans and other admixtures gained approval about this time. Problems with deterioration of concrete caused by reaction between certain aggregates and cements gave us low-alkali cement in 1941.

Modern Usages. Concrete has undergone a remarkable transformation in the last 45 years. In its early history and development stages, concrete was a gray and utilitarian construction material-dams, foundations, pavements, structural columns and beams. Rarely was advantage taken of its artistic potential. Today, however, it has reached new heights of service and beauty, thanks to the pioneering work of a few outstanding architects and engineers. Dramatic and striking structures offer exciting evidence of the freedom of aesthetic expression in textures, colors, shapes and sizes that enables the designer to impart elegance and artistry to concrete structures, utilizing bold and colorful techniques that were not even dreamed of a few years ago. High-rise building frames, hyperbolic paraboloids, barrels, precast and prestressed elements, tiltup, slipforms, lift slabs, free- form shotcrete and plaster, all lend their unique characteristics to the construction scene. Transporting and placing concrete for buildings has been revolutionized by the concrete pump. Other developments have included:

• Procedures and equipment to adapt such techniques as slipforming and tilt-up to small as well as large buildings;
• Precasting of large and small, plain and intricate, building components;
• Site precasting and prestressing;
• Availability of white portland cement;Development of expansive cement;
• New techniques for imparting color and texture to exposed concrete and plaster;
• New knowledge of lightweight aggregates and light-weight concrete;
• More realistic specifications on the part of architects and engineers;
• Improved methods of welding reinforcement;
• Availability of epoxy-coated reinforcement; and
• Improved concrete ingredients and quality control enabling concrete of very high strength to be produced ... in excess of 15,000 psi; and
• Ever-advancing technology in the field of admixtures ... superplasticizers, silica fume, chemical systems to control cement hydration, etc.

 

Finally, a reference guide for the inspector/technician who must make daily decisions regarding construction practices!

Concrete Manual

The Concrete Manual provides the guidance and information that inspectors, and related professionals need to become more proficient in relating to concrete field practices and inspection.

The Concrete Manual will:

• Introduce you to concrete and explain what it is and why it behaves as it does
• Explain conventional construction procedures
• Discuss control and inspection procedures
• Explore statistical quality control methods and their application to concrete construction
• Detail proper field testing procedures

A Resource Reference section includes a list of the concrete industry and technical organizations to contact for additional information.

Included is a CD-ROM with the complete Concrete Manual. This CD allows you to navigate easily through the document, search text, copy images from figures and tables, and cut and paste into correspondence or reports.

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